Ancient Egypt, one of the world's most enduring and influential civilizations, flourished along the Nile River in northeastern Africa for over three millennia, from around 3100 BCE to 30 BCE. Its history is traditionally divided into three major periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom, interspersed with intermediate periods of political instability. The Old Kingdom, known as the "Age of the Pyramids," saw the construction of monumental structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Sphinx. The Middle Kingdom is often regarded as a renaissance in arts, literature, and expansive trade, while the New Kingdom, Egypt's most prosperous era, included the reigns of powerful pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, and Ramses II.
Religion played a central role in Ancient Egyptian society, with a pantheon of gods and elaborate rituals centered around the afterlife. The Egyptians are renowned for their advancements in writing, notably hieroglyphics, mathematics, medicine, and engineering. Their achievements in architecture, art, and literature have left a lasting legacy on world history.
The civilization began to decline during the Late Period, facing invasions by Assyrians, Persians, and eventually the conquest by Alexander the Great, leading to the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The annexation by Rome in 30 BCE, following the death of Cleopatra VII, marked the end of Ancient Egypt as an independent entity. Today, Ancient Egypt continues to fascinate with its rich cultural heritage and monumental contributions to human history.