The French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted until 1799, was a monumental period in French and world history. This transformative event marked the end of the Ancien Régime—a system characterized by absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, and a rigid social hierarchy—and set the stage for modern democratic governance. Driven by profound social, economic, and political discontent, the revolution led to the rise of radical ideas and dramatic changes that reshaped the French nation and had far-reaching effects across Europe and beyond.

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Social Inequality

The French society was divided into three estates:

• The First Estate: The clergy, who enjoyed significant privileges and wealth.
• The Second Estate: The nobility, who also held privileges and were exempt from many taxes.
• The Third Estate: The commoners, including the bourgeoisie (middle class), urban workers, and peasants, who bore the brunt of taxation and had little political power.

This stark inequality fueled resentment and demands for change among the Third Estate.

2. Economic Hardship

France faced severe financial difficulties due to:

• Debt: Massive national debt, exacerbated by costly wars like the American Revolutionary War.
• Taxation: An inefficient and unfair tax system that burdened the commoners while exempting the privileged classes.
• Famine and Bread Prices: Poor harvests in the late 1780s led to food shortages and soaring bread prices, causing widespread suffering and unrest.

3. Political Crisis

King Louis XVI’s inability to effectively address the financial crisis and reform the tax system led to increasing frustration. His indecisiveness and reliance on unpopular ministers further eroded royal authority. The Estates-General, convened in 1789 for the first time in over 150 years, highlighted the deep divisions and the demand for a new political order.

4. Intellectual Influences

Enlightenment ideas advocating for liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired many revolutionaries. Philosophers like John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau critiqued absolute monarchy and promoted the concepts of popular sovereignty, the separation of powers, and individual rights.

Key Events of the French Revolution

1. The National Assembly and the Tennis Court Oath (1789)

Frustrated by the lack of representation, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, vowing to draft a new constitution. The Tennis Court Oath marked their commitment to establishing a constitutional government.