The history of Rome spans over a millennium, evolving from a small Latin village to the mighty Roman Empire that profoundly shaped Western Civilization. Founded in 753 BCE according to Roman Mythology and tradition, the city of Rome was initially ruled by kings, transitioning to a republic in 509 BCE. The Roman Republic was characterized by a complex political system involving elected officials (consuls), a Senate, and popular assemblies. Early Rome saw territorial expansion in Italy through wars with neighbors such as the Etruscans, Samnites, and Carthaginians.
The transition from republic to empire was marked by social unrest, political corruption, and conflicts like the Punic Wars with Carthage. Prominent figures such as Julius Caesar emerged during this period; ‣’s crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BCE initiated a civil war, ending in his dictatorship and eventual assassination in 44 BCE. His grandnephew and adopted son, Octavian, emerged victorious in the subsequent power struggles, becoming Rome's first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE.
Under Caesar Augustus, Rome entered the , a period of relative stability and prosperity lasting until the 3rd century CE. During this era, Rome's dominion extended from Britain in the northwest to Egypt in the southeast, making it one of history’s most expansive empires. Roman law, governance, architecture, engineering, and philosophy left indelible marks on Western culture. Latin literature flourished, with works from ‣, Cicero, and Ovid that are still studied today.
Christianity, originating within the Roman province of Judea, gradually spread throughout the empire, gaining legal recognition in 313 CE through the Edict of Milan. By the end of the 4th century, it became the state religion under Emperor Theodosius I. The empire began facing external pressures from Germanic tribes and internal issues like economic decline and military weaknesses. In 410 CE, Rome was sacked by the Visigoths, signaling the decline of the Western Roman Empire, which ultimately fell in 476 CE to the Germanic chieftain Odoacer.
The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, survived for another millennium with Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as its capital. The Byzantine Empire was a bastion of Christian Orthodoxy and Greco-Roman knowledge until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The legacy of Rome is enduring, deeply embedded in Western institutions, languages, and cultural foundations.
