The Pharaohs, the rulers of ancient Egypt, were considered both political leaders and divine representatives on Earth, reigning from the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BCE until the annexation by Rome in 30 BCE. The title "pharaoh" is derived from the Egyptian term "per-aa," meaning "great house," signifying the palace of the king. Pharaohs were central to Egyptian civilization, wielding immense power over religious, administrative, and military matters.
The history of the pharaohs is traditionally divided into three major periods: the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom, interspersed with intermediate periods of instability. The Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE) is renowned for the construction of the pyramids, particularly the Great Pyramid of Giza built for Pharaoh Khufu. The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE) saw a renaissance in culture, art, and literature, with pharaohs like Mentuhotep II and Senusret III consolidating power and expanding trade.
The New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE) was Egypt's most prosperous era, marked by the reigns of powerful and influential pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs who expanded trade networks; Akhenaten, who attempted to revolutionize Egyptian religion by promoting monotheism; and Ramses II, known for his military conquests and monumental building projects. The decline of the New Kingdom led to periods of foreign rule and internal strife.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty, established after Alexander the Great's conquest, was the last era of Egyptian pharaohs, culminating in the reign of Cleopatra VII. Her defeat by the Romans in 30 BCE marked the end of pharaonic rule and the beginning of Roman domination. The legacy of the pharaohs endures through their monumental architecture, artistic achievements, and the fascinating myths and history that continue to captivate the world.